Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology - Chapter 2: Cells and Tissues

Summary

This video from the Anatomy and Physiology course delves into the intricacies of cells and tissues. It explains the cell's structure, including the cell membrane, nucleus, and organelles like mitochondria and the Golgi apparatus. The video also covers cell functions, communication, and division, highlighting the significance of the Human Genome Project. Tissues are explored, detailing their types and functions, such as epithelial for protection and muscle for contraction. The video concludes with a discussion on membranes, emphasizing their role in lining and covering body surfaces.

Takeaways

• 📚 The organization of the body follows a hierarchy: from atoms to cells, to tissues, to organs, to systems, and finally to the organism.
• 🔬 The cell is highly complex with components such as a control center (nucleus), internal transport, and power plants (mitochondria).
• 🧬 Cells are mainly composed of water, proteins, sugars, fats, and minerals, making them the fundamental unit of all living things.
• 🔎 Light microscopes use visible light, while electron microscopes offer detailed views of the cell's ultrastructure.
• 🧪 The cell membrane regulates what enters and leaves the cell, consisting of a bilayer of lipids with embedded proteins.
• 🧫 The nucleus acts as the control center, containing chromosomes with genes made up of DNA, which regulates cell functions.
• 🧬 Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, and the Human Genome Project mapped 30,000 genes to help in treating disorders like cancer and diabetes.
• 💥 Mitochondria generate energy for the cell through ATP, play roles in cell death (apoptosis), and can influence health and aging.
• 🌊 Diffusion, osmosis, and filtration are key passive processes for moving materials in and out of cells without requiring energy.
• 💪 Muscle tissues consist of skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscles, with skeletal muscles being voluntary and the others involuntary.

Q & A

What are the different levels of organization in the human body from the most basic to the most complex?

The organization levels of the human body from the most basic to the most complex are: cells, tissues, organs, systems, and finally the organism.

What are the two types of microscopes mentioned in the script, and what are their primary functions?

The two types of microscopes mentioned are the light microscope and the electron microscope. The light microscope uses visible light for illumination, while the electron microscope allows researchers to study the fine detail and ultrastructure of cells and their parts.

What is the primary function of the cell membrane, and what is its composition?

The primary function of the cell membrane is to protect the cell and regulate what passes into and out of the cell. It is composed of a double layer of lipids, specifically phospholipids, with various proteins embedded within.

What is the nucleus of a cell, and what are its key features?

The nucleus is the control center of the cell, typically a large rounded organelle surrounded by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope. It contains chromosomes, which are regions called genes that contain DNA.

What is the significance of the Human Genome Project, and when was it completed?

The Human Genome Project was significant because it mapped the approximately 30,000 genes that make up the human genome. The project was completed in 2003 and has been applied to developing technology for the prevention and treatment of many disorders, including cancer and diabetes.

What is a karyotype, and how is it used in determining chromosomal abnormalities?

A karyotype is a photograph of an individual's chromosomes arranged by size, shape, and number. It is used to determine whether chromosomes are normal or abnormal, such as in the case of Down syndrome (trisomy 21) where there are three chromosomes at number 21.

What are the functions of the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi apparatus in a cell?

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a network of canals within the cell that manufacture proteins. There are two types of ER: rough ER, which has ribosomes along its outwalls, and smooth ER, which synthesizes steroids, phospholipids, and fatty acids. The Golgi apparatus functions as a protein processing and packaging plant and also produces lysosomes.

What is the role of mitochondria in a cell, and how do they relate to health and aging?

Mitochondria are the power plants of the cell, carrying on cellular respiration to break down fuel molecules and release their energy. They can affect health and aging by leaking electrons that form free radicals, which are highly toxic and reactive compounds that interfere with normal cell functions. Mitochondria also play a role in programmed cell death, known as apoptosis.

How do cells communicate with one another, and what are the steps involved in cell signaling?

Cells communicate by signaling one another through a sequence of events: 1) a cell sends a signal, usually a chemical compound like a hormone, 2) reception, where specific proteins on target cells bind with the signal, 3) signal transduction, where a receptor converts an external signal into an internal one, and 4) response, where some cell activity is altered.

What are the four stages of mitosis, and what happens during each stage?

The four stages of mitosis are prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. During prophase, chromatin coils making chromosomes visible, and the nuclear membrane dissolves. In metaphase, chromosomes position along the equator of the cell. Anaphase sees sister chromatids separate, and chromosomes move toward opposite ends. Finally, in telophase, chromosomes begin to uncoil, and the nuclear membrane forms around each set.

What are the different types of tissues in the body, and what are their primary functions?

The different types of tissues include epithelial tissue (protection and secretion), connective tissue (joining, supporting, and protecting), muscle tissue (contraction), and nervous tissue (transmitting information). Epithelial tissue forms glands and lines body cavities, connective tissue includes cartilage, bone, and blood, muscle tissue is responsible for movement, and nervous tissue is composed of neurons and glial cells.

Outlines

00:00

🔬 Introduction to Cells and Tissues

This paragraph introduces the study of cells and tissues in anatomy and physiology, highlighting the complexity of cells despite their microscopic size. It explains the hierarchical organization of the body, from cells to tissues to organs and systems. The paragraph details the components of a cell, including the cell membrane, nucleus, chromosomes, and various organelles such as mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi apparatus. It also touches on the use of light and electron microscopes to observe cells and their structures. The nucleus is described as the control center of the cell, with chromosomes and genes playing a crucial role in cell activities and the human genome. The Human Genome Project is mentioned, emphasizing its contribution to understanding genetic disorders.

05:01

🧬 Cell Structure and Function

This section delves deeper into the structure and function of various cell components. It discusses the cell membrane's role in protecting and regulating the cell's contents, the nucleus as the control center, and the nucleolus's role in ribosome assembly. The endoplasmic reticulum, with its rough and smooth forms, is explained in terms of protein synthesis and lipid production. The Golgi apparatus is described as a protein processing and packaging plant. Lysosomes are introduced as digestive enzymes containing sacs, and mitochondria are explained as the cell's power plants, responsible for cellular respiration and ATP production. The paragraph also covers the cytoskeleton, microtubules, cilia, and flagella, and how substances move through the plasma membrane via passive processes like diffusion, osmosis, and filtration. Active transport mechanisms, such as the sodium-potassium pump, are also explained.

10:03

🌐 Cell Communication and Division

This paragraph focuses on how cells communicate with each other and the process of cell division. It outlines the steps of cell signaling, including signal sending, reception, transduction, and response. The importance of cell communication in tissue formation, homeostasis, and defense against diseases is emphasized. The process of cell division, specifically mitosis, is detailed through its stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. The life cycle of a cell, including interphase and the mitotic phases, is also discussed, highlighting the importance of mitosis in ensuring the proper distribution of chromosomes to new cells.

15:05

💪 Tissues and Membranes

The final paragraph shifts focus to tissues, which are groups of cells that work together for specific functions. It describes the different types of tissues: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous. Epithelial tissues are discussed in terms of their protective and secretory functions, with examples of various types of epithelial cells and glands. Connective tissue's role in joining, supporting, and protecting the body is explained, with details on different types of fibers and tissues like cartilage and bone. Muscle tissue is explored, differentiating between skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscles, and their functions. Nervous tissue's role in transmitting information via neurons and glial cells is also covered. The paragraph concludes with a discussion of membranes, including epithelial, mucous, serous, and connective tissue membranes, and their functions in lining and covering body surfaces.

Keywords

💡Cell

A cell is the basic structural, functional, and biological unit of all known living organisms. In the video, cells are described as complex entities with various functions, each equipped with a control center, internal transportation system, power plants, and factories for making needed materials. The cell is central to the theme of the video, which is to explore the anatomy and physiology of cells and tissues. The video mentions that cells are so small that they can only be observed under a microscope, highlighting their microscopic nature.

💡Cell Membrane

The cell membrane, also known as the plasma membrane, is a thin barrier that surrounds and protects the cell. It regulates the passage of substances into and out of the cell. In the video, the cell membrane is described as a double layer of lipids with embedded proteins, emphasizing its role in selective permeability and protection. This concept is crucial for understanding how cells interact with their environment and maintain homeostasis.

💡Nucleus

The nucleus is a large, membrane-bound organelle that contains the cell's genetic material and controls its activities. It is referred to as the control center of the cell. The video explains that the nucleus is surrounded by a double membrane and contains chromosomes, which are essential for cell division and heredity. The nucleus plays a critical role in the video's discussion of cell division and the transmission of genetic information.

💡Chromosomes

Chromosomes are thread-like structures made of DNA and protein found in the nucleus of a cell. They carry genetic information in the form of genes. The video mentions that human body cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes, and these condense during cell division. Chromosomes are central to the video's discussion of genetics and cell division, illustrating how genetic information is passed from one generation of cells to the next.

💡DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

DNA is a molecule that carries the genetic instructions for the development, functioning, growth, and reproduction of all known living organisms. The video describes DNA as a chemical that regulates cell activities according to its sequence arrangement into genes. DNA is portrayed as a 'chemical cookbook' for the cell, with genes being the 'recipes' for making specific proteins, emphasizing its role in determining cellular functions and traits.

💡Mitochondria

Mitochondria are organelles found in eukaryotic cells that generate most of the cell's supply of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), used as a source of chemical energy. The video refers to mitochondria as the 'power plants' of the cell, highlighting their role in cellular respiration and energy production. This concept is important for understanding cellular metabolism and the source of energy that drives cellular processes.

💡Endoplasmic Reticulum

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a network of membranous tubules and sacs within a cell. It is involved in the synthesis of lipids, carbohydrates, and proteins. The video distinguishes between rough and smooth ER, with the rough ER being studded with ribosomes that aid in protein synthesis. This concept is integral to the video's exploration of cellular factories and the production of necessary cellular components.

💡Golgi Apparatus

The Golgi apparatus is an organelle found in eukaryotic cells that processes and packages macromolecules, such as proteins and lipids, for secretion or for use within the cell. The video describes the Golgi apparatus as a 'protein processing and packaging plant,' emphasizing its role in modifying, sorting, and packaging proteins for transport to their final destinations within or outside the cell.

💡Tissues

Tissues are groups of similar cells that work together to perform a specific function. The video discusses various types of tissues, including epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissues. Tissues are essential for understanding how cells organize into functional units to support the body's systems. The video's exploration of tissues extends the theme of cellular organization and cooperation to a macroscopic level.

💡Cell Signaling

Cell signaling is a process that allows cells to communicate with each other. The video outlines the steps involved in cell signaling, including the sending of signals, reception by target cells, signal transduction, and cellular response. This concept is vital for understanding how cells coordinate their activities and respond to changes in their environment, which is a key aspect of the video's broader discussion on cellular communication and coordination.

Highlights

Cells are the fundamental units of all living things, with complex structures including a control center, internal transportation system, power plants, and factories for making needed materials.

Light and electron microscopes are essential tools for observing cells, with light microscopes using visible light and electron microscopes revealing fine details and ultrastructure.

The cell membrane is a thin plasma membrane that protects the cell and regulates the passage of substances in and out.

The nucleus serves as the control center of the cell, surrounded by a double membrane and containing chromosomes and genes that regulate cell activities.

Chromosomes are composed of DNA and proteins, with genes on chromosomes acting as recipes for making specific proteins.

The Human Genome Project, completed in 2003, mapped the human genetic material, which has applications in preventing and treating disorders like cancer and diabetes.

Karyotyping involves arranging an individual's chromosomes by size, shape, and number to determine if they are normal or abnormal, such as in Down syndrome.

The nucleolus is a region within the nucleus that assembles ribosomes, which are essential for protein synthesis.

The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of canals within the cell that manufactures proteins, with two types: rough and smooth, each serving different functions.

The Golgi apparatus functions as a protein processing and packaging plant, also producing lysosomes that contain digestive enzymes.

Mitochondria are the cell's power plants, carrying out cellular respiration and releasing energy stored in ATP for various cellular processes.

Vesicles are small membrane-enclosed structures that transport cargo within the cell, and vacuoles are larger sacs involved in ingesting large particles.

The cytoskeleton provides structural support within the cell and is involved in cell movement and division.

Cilia and flagella are hair-like organelles that aid in cell movement, with flagella propelling sperm cells towards the ovum.

The plasma membrane is selectively permeable, allowing certain substances to pass while preventing others, with materials moving through it via diffusion, osmosis, and filtration.

Active transport moves materials against a concentration gradient, requiring energy expenditure and examples include sodium-potassium pumps.

Phagocytosis and pinocytosis are forms of active transport where cells ingest large particles and droplets of fluid, respectively.

Cell communication is essential for processes like tissue formation and homeostasis, involving signaling between cells through chemical compounds like hormones.

Cell division, including mitosis with its stages of prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase, ensures the chromosomes are duplicated and distributed to new cells.

Tissues are groups of cells that work together for specific functions, with major types including epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissues.

Epithelial tissues provide protection and secretion, with variations like simple, stratified, and pseudostratified epithelium, and glandular formations.

Connective tissues support and protect, with types including loose connective tissue, adipose tissue, cartilage, and bone, containing fibers like collagen and reticular fibers.

Muscle tissues contract, with skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle types, each with specific structures and functions.

Nervous tissue transmits information, composed of neurons and glial cells, with sensory neurons detecting changes and motor neurons transmitting information to muscles and glands.

Membranes cover or line body surfaces, with epithelial membranes like mucous and serous membranes serving different functions in the body.

Transcripts

welcome to anatomy and physiology

chapter 2.

the information is credited to this book

Wikipedia and many other sources

chapter 2 covers cells and tissues

a quick reminder that the organization

level of the body is from Adam to cells

to tissues to organs then to systems and

finally organism

cell the cell is amazingly complex it

has a control center internal

transportation system power plants a

factory making needed materials and

packaging plants despite their

complexity most cells are so small that

they can be observed only under a

microscope

light microscope uses visible light as

the source of Illumination

and

the electron microscope enables

researchers to study the fine detail

Ultra structure of cells in their parts

the photograph taken with a light

microscope is referred to as a light

micrograph LM whereas one taken with an

electron microscope is an electron

micrograph em

cell all cells are similar in that they

contain a gelatinous substance composed

of water protein sugar fats and various

minerals the cell is a fundamental unit

of all living things major parts of the

cell include cell membrane nucleus

chromosomes Gene DNA karyotype cytoplasm

mitochondria endoplasmic reticulum and

Golgi apparatus

let's first discuss the cell membrane

cell membrane surrounds by a thin plasma

membrane that protects and regulates

what passes into the out of the cell the

plasma membrane consists of a double

layer by layer of lipids phospholipids

in which a variety of proteins are

embedded

nucleus is the control center of the

cell it's typically a large rounded

organelle surrounded by a double

membrane called the nuclear envelope

nucleus pores in the nucleus envelope

allow the passage of material between

the nucleus and cytoplasm

chromosomes the nucleus contain Loosely

coiled material called chromatin when a

cell prepares to divide the chromatin

coils tightly and condense to form

rod-like structures within the nucleus

all human body cells except for the sex

cells the egg and the sperm short for

spermatozo on contains 23 pairs of

chromosomes

each sperm in each egg cell have only 23

of her chromosomes after an egg in a

sperm cell United to form the embryo

each cell of the embryo then has 46

chromosomes 23 pairs

Gene chromosomes regions called genes

thousands each gene contains a chemical

called DNA

deoxyribonucleic acid

DNA regulates the activities of the cell

according to its sequence's Arrangement

into genes on each chromosome DNA

sequence resembles a series of recipes

in code this code then passed out to the

nucleus to the rest of the cell directs

the activities of the cell such as cell

division and synthesis of proteins

we can think of the chromosomes as a

chemical cookbook for the cell the genes

are recipes for making specific proteins

the complete set of genes that make up

the human genetic Mater is the human

genome

the Human Genome Project completed in

2003 mapped their 30 000 or so genes

that made up the human genome here is a

connection why this matters the

knowledge and experience scientists

gained from their work on the Human

Genome Project research has been applied

to developing technology for prevention

and treatment of many disorders

including cancer and diabetes

karyotype is a photograph of an

individual's chromosomes arranged by

size shape and number

karyotyping can determine whether

chromosomes are normal

this is an abnormal karyotype of down

syndrome trisomy 21 it has three

chromosomes at number 21.

the nucleolus is a granular region

within the nucleus the nucleus assembles

ribosomes organelles that help

manufacture proteins

the endoplasmic reticulum is a network

reticulum of canals within the cell

these canals are cellular tunnel systems

that manufacture proteins for the cell

there are two types of er R rough and

smooth the rough ER has a granular

appearance that results from organelles

called ribosomes along its outwalls

ribosome function as factories where

proteins are manufactured

smooth ER is specialized to synthesize

steroids phospholipids and fatty acids

in the liver cells smooth ER has enzymes

that break down many drugs including

alcohol and amphetamines

Golgi complex is composed of layers of

plate-like membranes this organelle

functions as a protein processing and

packaging plant it also produces

lysosomes

lysosomes are little sacs that contain

about 40 different digestive enzymes

that destroy bacterial and other foreign

matter under some conditions lysosomes

break down organelles the components of

these organelles can then be recycled or

used as an energy source

mitochondria are the power plant these

organelles carry on cellular respiration

the process of breaking down fuel

molecules and releasing their energy

some of the energy is temporarily stored

in ATP adenosine triphosphate a chemical

compound that can be used to power a

variety of chemical reactions in the

cell

mitochondria can affect health and aging

by leaking electrons that form free

radicals and highly toxic and reactive

compounds interfere with normal cell

functions

mitochondria also play an important role

in program cell death referred to as

apoptosis a normal part of development

and maintenance

vesicles is a small membrane enclosed

structure that holds or transports some

type of cargo within the cell vesicles

are covered by a vacuole a larger

membrane enclosed Sac found in the

cytoplasm

evacule a larger membrane enclosed Sac

found in the cytoplasm vacuoles form

when a cell ingested a large particle

such as a bacterium

cytoskeleton is a dense network of tiny

protein filaments provide structural

support and is important in transporting

materials within the cell the

cytoskeleton helps determine the shape

of a cell and its ability to move it is

also important in cell division

microtubules one of the components of

the cytoskeleton are tiny hollow tubes

that provide support

microtubules are components of cilia and

flagella organelles important in

movement

cilia are tiny hair-like organelles that

project from the surface of some types

of cells used to to move materials

outside the cell

sperm cell is equipped with a flagellum

a whip-like tail that propels it toward

the ovum egg

materials move through the plasma

membrane plasma membrane is selective

permeable this means that it allows

certain substances to enter or leave the

cell while preventing the passage of

other substance

materials move through the cell

membranes passively by physical

processes including diffusions osmosis

and filtration these processes do not

require the cell to expend metabolic

energy

diffusion is the net movement of

molecules or ions from a region of

higher concentration to a region of

lower concentration bought about by the

energy of the molecules diffusion

depends on the random movement of

individual molecules

in the above illustration when a cube of

sugar is dropped in the water its

molecules dissolve then the modules

begin to diffuse through the water and

eventually the sugar molecules are

evenly distributed throughout the water

gases and nutrients move in and out of

cells by diffusion

osmosis is the diffusion of water

molecules through a selectively

permeable membrane from a region where

water molecules are more concentrated to

a region where they are less

concentrated

the dissolved ions and molecules solute

in the more concentrated solution pull

the water molecules across the membrane

by the force called the osmotic pressure

when living cells are placed in a

solution that has a solute concentration

that is isotonic equal to that of the

cells the water molecule concentration

is also equal and therefore water

molecules move in out of the cells at

the same rate

when cells are placed in a solution with

a solute consultation that is hypertonic

greater compared with that of the cell

water leaves the cells causing them to

dehydrate shrink and perhaps die

when cells are placed in a hypotonic

solution ion of lesser concentration

compared with that of the cell the cell

exerts an osmotic pressure on the

solution water moves into the cells

causing them to swell and perhaps burst

filtration is the passage of materials

through membranes by mechanical pressure

for example blood pressure forces some

of the liquid parts of the blood plasma

through the capillary wall by filtration

this is how tissue fluid is produced

the cell must actively move some

materials from a region of lower

concentration to a region of higher

concentration that is against a

concentration gradient working a pill

against a concentration gradient

requires the cell to expend energy in

active transport the cell must use some

of its stored energy ATP to drive the

active transport

an example of active transport is the

sodium potassium pumps found in the

plasma membrane of virtually all cells

each pump consists of a group of

specific proteins in the plasma membrane

ATP provides energy to pump sodium ions

out of the cell at the same time

potassium ions are moved into the cell

phagocytosis means cell eating it is a

form of active transport in phagocytosis

cells in just large solid particles such

as cellular debris of bacteria

pinocytosis sometimes called cell

drinking is another example of active

transport folds of the plasma membrane

track drops of fluid containing

dissolved particles the folds are

pinched off into the cytoplasm as small

vesicles the vesicles become smaller as

their contents are slowly transferred

into the cytoplasm

cells of the body must communicate with

one another to carry out essential

processes for example cells must

recognize one another to form tissues

cells also signal information about the

condition of the body and then sends

signals to initiate or terminate

processes that restore homeostasis many

types of cells must communicate to

protect the body against invading

disease organisms cells communicate by

signaling one another

a sequence of events takes place in cell

signaling step one a cell must send a

signal usually a chemical compound such

as a hormone

Step 2 reception receptors specific

proteins on target cells cells that can

respond to a specific signal bind with

the signal

step 3 signal transduction a process by

which a receptor converts a signal

outside the cell into a signal inside

the cell that affects some cellular

process

and step 4 response by the cell some

cell activity is altered

cell division certain cell types in the

body are divided almost continuously for

example stem cells in the red bone

narrow produce more than 2 million red

blood cells every second however the

mature blood cells do not divide before

a cell divides to form two cells the

chromosomes are precisely duplicated and

the cell undergoes mitosis mitosis has

four stages prophase metaphase anaphase

and telophase

life cycle stages of a cell include

interphase the period of growth and

activity between mitosis a cell

reproduces Itself by undergoing mitosis

and then dividing to form two new cells

note that there are 46 chromosomes in

this phase

during prophase the first stage of

mitosis the chromatin coils making the

chromosomes visible the nuclear membrane

dissolves centrioles migrate toward

opposite ends of the cell and a spindle

made of microtubules forms

during metaphase the chromosomes

position along the Equator of the cell

think of metaphase like in the Middle

with the letter m

during anaphase sister chromatid

separate and the two sets of chromosomes

move toward opposite ends of the cell

during telophase chromosomes begin to

uncoil and the nuclear membrane forms

around each set of chromosomes cell

division occurs

mitosis ensures that the chromosomes are

duplicated and distributed to each new

cell

this is the summary of the stages of a

cell's life cycle please learn this

cycle well

let's move on to tissues a tissue is a

group of closely associated cells that

work together to carry out a specific

function or group of functions

the major function of epithelial tissue

is protection it covers the body and

lines the body cavities some epithelial

tissue is specialized for secretion and

forms glands based on shape epithelial

cells may be squamous cuboidal or

columnar epithelial cells may be

arranged to form simple stratified or

pseudostratified epithelial tissue

a gland consists of one or more

epithelial cells specialized to produce

and secrete a products such as mucus

sweat saliva milk enzymes or hormones

for example in image a goblet cells in

the lining of the intestine secrete

mucus a slippery protective substance

there are two types of glands exocrine

and endocrine exocrine glands have ducts

tubes that also consist of epithelial

cells through which the secretion is

discharged to some body surfaces these

are the exocrine glands

endocrine glands do not have ducts they

release their products called hormones

into the surrounding tissue fluid the

hormone molecules usually diffuse into

the blood which transports them to their

destination below are the endocrine

glands in the human body

connective tissue joins other body

tissues supports the body and protects

underlying organs some main types of

connective tissue are loose connective

tissue adipose tissue cartilage bone

blood lymph and tissues producing blood

cells

three types of connective tissue fibers

are collagen fibers reticular fibers and

elastic fibers

whereas epithelial cells fit closely

together the cells of connective tissue

are separated by intercellular substance

which consists of thread-like fibers

scattered through a thick gel called a

matrix

collagen fibers contain the protein

collagen the most abundant protein in

the body

fibroblasts blue cells in the picture

the fiber producing cells and

macrophages the large scavenger cells

are commonly found in connective tissues

loose connective tissue also called a

realer tissue joints body structures it

is found as a thin filling between body

parts and serves as a reservoir for

water and salts

adipose fat tissue stores fat and

releases it when the body needs energy

adipose tissue helps to shape and

protect the body and provides insulation

cartilage tissue found in some

supporting structures such as in the

discs that serve as cushions between the

vertebra and at the ends of some bones

cartilage cells called chondrocytes

secret a tough rubbery Matrix as well as

collagen fibers the cartilage cells are

found in small cavities culpicuni in The

Matrix

like cartilage bone consists mainly of

Matrix bone cells called osteocytes are

located in lecune within the Matrix a

typical bone has an outer layer of

compact bone that surrounds an inner

region of spongy bone compact bone is

made up of single-shaped units called

osteons

muscle tissue which consists of

elongated cells called muscle fibers is

specialized to contract there are

different types of muscle tissues

skeletal cardiac and smooth

skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle

fibers are striated or striped

skeletal muscle is attached to bones and

is voluntary

cardiac muscle has intercalated discs

tight junctions between adjacent muscle

fibers that allow rapid transmission of

information

smooth muscle and cardiac muscle are

involuntary

smooth muscle functions in the movement

of internal organs

once again both smooth muscle and

cardiac muscle are involuntary for

example at night when you sleep your

heart still Beats

nervous tissue is specialized to

transmit information it consists of

neurons and glial cells which support

the neurons a neuron has a large cell

body that contains the nucleus and from

which extend dendrites specialize for

receiving impulses and an axon that

transmits information away from the cell

body

Sensory neurons receive information from

sensory receptors structures that detect

information about changes in the

internal or external environment for

example touch receptors in the skin and

photoreceptors in the retina of the eye

these neurons transmit information to

the brain and spinal cord motor neurons

transmit information from the brain and

spinal cord to muscles and glands

membranes cover or line body surfaces

membranes are sheets of tissue that

cover or line body surfaces

epithelial membranes consist of

epithelial tissue and a layer of

underlying connective tissue

a mucous membrane or mucosa lines body

cavities that open to the outside of the

body

serous membrane or sarasa lines a body

cavity that does not open to the outside

of the body the portion of the membrane

attached to the wall of the cavity is

the parietal membrane whereas the part

of the membrane that covers the organs

inside the cavity is the visceral

membrane

the membranes that cover bone and

cartilage are examples of connective

tissue membranes

the synovial membrane is a connective

tissue membrane that lines the joint

cavities

done with chapter 2. keep re-watching

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