Who were the Phoenicians? A Quick Look at Phoenician History
Summary
TLDRThis episode delves into the history of the Phoenicians, an ancient civilization known for their maritime prowess and trade. Originating from the eastern Mediterranean, they established city-states like Tyre and Sidon, which thrived on trade, especially in valuable timber and manufactured goods. Their far-reaching influence led to colonization across the Mediterranean, including the founding of Carthage. The script also covers their interactions with powerful empires like Egypt, Assyria, Babylon, and Persia, and their eventual decline with the rise of Alexander the Great. The Phoenicians' legacy, including their contributions to the alphabet and Western culture, is a significant part of their story.
Takeaways
- 🌍 The term 'Phoenicia' refers to a region along the eastern Mediterranean coast, known for its city-states that shared a common language, culture, and political solidarity.
- 🟣 The name 'Phoenicia' is derived from the Greek word 'phoinix,' meaning crimson or purple, possibly due to a valuable purple dye produced from local shellfish.
- 🏺 Phoenicians are considered descendants of the Canaanite peoples, maintaining cultural, linguistic, and religious continuities with their Bronze Age ancestors.
- 🏛️ Phoenicia was a federation of city-states, not a unified kingdom, with each city ruled by its own king, including prominent cities like Byblos, Tyre, Sidon, and Beirut.
- 🛶 The Phoenicians were skilled seafaring traders, establishing colonies across the Mediterranean, such as Carthage, which became a significant power in its own right.
- 🌳 Phoenicia's economy was heavily reliant on trade, with timber being a major export, alongside manufactured goods made from ivory, wood, stone, metal, wool, and linen.
- 🔍 Historical records of the Phoenicians are primarily sourced from texts of neighboring civilizations, with few original Phoenician texts surviving, likely due to the perishable nature of papyrus.
- 📜 Assyrian kings such as Tiglath-Pileser I and Ashurnasirpal II documented their military campaigns and interactions with Phoenician city-states, including tributes and trade.
- 🏰 The city of Tyre was renowned for its impregnable island location, which played a role in its survival and strategic importance throughout various conflicts.
- ⚔️ Phoenician city-states often found themselves caught in the power struggles between major empires, such as the Assyrians, Babylonians, and Persians, leading to periods of vassalage and rebellion.
- 📚 The Phoenician legacy is marked by their cultural impact, including the development of the Phoenician alphabet, which laid the foundation for many modern scripts and contributed significantly to Western culture.
Q & A
What geographical area did Phoenicia encompass?
-Phoenicia encompassed certain cities of the eastern Mediterranean coastal region, which shared a common language, culture, religion, and political solidarity.
What is the origin of the term 'Phoenicia' and 'Phoenicians'?
-The terms 'Phoenicia' and 'Phoenicians' are derived from the Greek word 'phoinix,' meaning crimson or purple, possibly due to a purple dye extracted from the murex shellfish found along the shores of the northern Levantine coast.
How did the Phoenicians view themselves in relation to the Canaanite peoples?
-The Phoenicians likely thought of themselves as descendants of the Canaanite peoples of the Bronze Age, sharing similarities in language, religion, and culture.
What was the political structure of Phoenicia?
-Phoenicia was not a unified kingdom but rather a federation of city-states, each ruled by a separate king.
Which were the most prominent Phoenician cities?
-The most prominent Phoenician cities were Byblos, Tyre, Sidon, Beirut, and Arvada.
What was the impact of the Sea Peoples on the Phoenician city-states?
-The Sea Peoples brought about the Bronze Age collapse, but the Phoenician city-states were relatively unscathed, possibly due to paying them off, and they emerged to dominate the region economically.
What was Phoenicia's most valuable export?
-Phoenicia's most valuable export was timber, but they also traded in manufactured goods created from ivory, wood, stone, metal, wool, and linen.
Where did the Phoenicians establish trading colonies?
-The Phoenicians established trading colonies throughout the Mediterranean, including Sicily, Sardinia, southern Spain, and the coast of northern Africa, with Carthage being one of the most famous.
What happened to the Phoenician city-states after the Bronze Age collapse?
-After the Bronze Age collapse, the absence of the once great powers in the region allowed the Phoenician city-states to dominate the region economically.
How did the Assyrian Empire interact with the Phoenician city-states?
-The Assyrian Empire often demanded tribute from the Phoenician city-states, and at times, military campaigns were launched against them, but some city-states managed to maintain a degree of autonomy by forming alliances or submitting to Assyrian rule.
What was the significance of the cedar trees of Phoenicia in the ancient world?
-The cedar trees of Phoenicia were highly valued for their timber, which was used in construction and mentioned in Egyptian texts and the Bible as an object of great worth.
How did the Phoenicians contribute to the development of the alphabet?
-While the script does not detail the Phoenician alphabet, it is known that they are credited with developing an early alphabetic writing system that influenced Western scripts, which will be discussed in another program.
Outlines
🌊 Introduction to the Phoenicians
This segment introduces the Phoenicians, an ancient civilization known for their maritime prowess and cultural ties to the Canaanites. The term 'Phoenicia' is derived from the Greek word 'phoinix,' meaning 'crimson' or 'purple,' possibly due to a purple dye extracted from local shellfish. The Phoenicians were not a unified kingdom but a federation of city-states along the eastern Mediterranean coast, each governed by a king. Prominent cities included Byblos, Tyre, Sidon, and Beirut. The Phoenicians were traders, exporting timber and manufactured goods and importing precious stones and commodities. They established colonies throughout the Mediterranean, including Carthage, which became a significant power. The script also discusses the Sea Peoples and the Bronze Age collapse, which affected the region but left the Phoenician city-states largely unscathed.
📜 Early References and Assyrian Interactions
The second paragraph delves into early historical references to the Phoenicians, particularly from Assyrian royal inscriptions. It discusses the Assyrian King Tiglath-Pileser I's accounts of his campaigns in Phoenicia, where he claimed to have harvested cedar trees and encountered a narwhal. The paragraph also highlights the significance of cedar in ancient Egypt and the Bible, and how it was a costly resource for rulers like Solomon, who had to cede cities in exchange for it. The text also describes Assyrian military campaigns and the formation of anti-Assyrian coalitions by Levantine kingdoms, including Phoenician city-states. It details the Assyrian King Sennacherib's conquests and the submission of local rulers, including those from Phoenicia.
🛡 Phoenician- Assyrian Alliances and Conflicts
This section explores the complex relationship between the Phoenicians and the Assyrian Empire, marked by both alliances and conflicts. It discusses a treaty between the Assyrian King Esarhaddon and the Phoenician King Baal of Tyre, which granted Baal control over several ports in exchange for loyalty and tribute. The paragraph also covers the rebellion of Baal against Assyria, joining forces with Egypt and Nubia, and the subsequent Assyrian response under King Ashurbanipal. It details Ashurbanipal's campaigns, the submission of various kings, including those from Phoenicia, and the Assyrian use of the Phoenician Navy in their military endeavors.
🏰 The Siege of Tyre and the Fall of the Assyrian Empire
The fourth paragraph focuses on the siege of Tyre by the Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar II, which lasted for over a decade. It discusses the eventual agreement between Tyre and Babylon, allowing Tyre to maintain local rule in exchange for naval support. The paragraph also covers the transition of power in the region from the Neo-Babylonian Empire to the Persian Achaemenid dynasty under Cyrus the Great. It highlights the Phoenician Navy's role in Persian campaigns, including the invasion of Greece, and the revolt in Phoenicia during the reign of Persian King Artaxerxes III, which was ultimately suppressed.
🏹 Alexander the Great and the Hellenization of Phoenicia
The final paragraph discusses the arrival of Alexander the Great in Phoenicia and his conquest of the region. It details the siege and eventual fall of Tyre, the city's punishment, and the impact on its inhabitants. The paragraph also touches on the Hellenization of Phoenicia and the decline of historical references to the Phoenicians in later periods. It concludes with a teaser for future discussions on the Phoenicians' contributions to Western culture, such as the development of the alphabet, and an invitation for viewers to engage with the content and follow the channel on social media.
Mindmap
Keywords
💡Phoenicia
💡Canaanite
💡Sea Peoples
💡Bronze Age collapse
💡City-states
💡Murex
💡Trade
💡Carthage
💡Assyrian Empire
💡Persian Empire
💡Alexander the Great
Highlights
Introduction to the Phoenicians, their geographical location, and cultural background.
Etymology of the term 'Phoenicia' and its possible connection to the purple dye industry.
Phoenicia as a federation of city-states rather than a unified kingdom.
Prominent Phoenician cities and their roles as trade hubs.
The Sea Peoples' invasion and its impact on the Bronze Age collapse.
Phoenician city-states' resilience and their economic dominance post-Bronze Age collapse.
Phoenician trade commodities and their extensive trade networks.
The establishment of Phoenician colonies and the rise of Carthage.
Historical sources on the Phoenicians, including Egyptian, Assyrian, and Greek texts.
Assyrian King Tiglath-Pileser I's inscriptions and his interactions with Phoenicia.
The significance of Phoenician cedar in ancient Egypt and the Bible.
Assyrian military campaigns and the tribute system with Phoenician city-states.
The Treaty between Assyrian King Sennacherib and the King of Tyre.
The rebellion against Assyria and the role of Phoenician city-states in the conflict.
The fall of the Assyrian Empire and the rise of the Neo-Babylonian Empire's influence on Phoenicia.
The long siege of Tyre by Nebuchadnezzar II and its aftermath.
Phoenician autonomy under Persian rule and their contribution to the Persian Navy.
The Phoenician revolt against Persian rule and its suppression.
Alexander the Great's conquest of Phoenicia and the siege of Tyre.
The decline of Phoenician references in historical texts and their lasting impact on Western culture.
Transcripts
[Music]
hi everyone welcome to this program
which if you've been following the
series on ancient canaan you'll
definitely be interested in in a sense
it's a continuation of that story this
episode will be the start of several
programs on the Phoenicians so without
further ado let's begin first though
let's clarify some basic terms what we
geographically refer to as Phoenicia
encompassed certain cities of the
eastern Mediterranean coastal region
that shared a common language culture
religion and sense of political
solidarity the terms Phoenicia and
Phoenicians are actually derived from
the Greek word finest meaning crimson or
purple scholars aren't exactly sure why
such a word was used to describe them
but it may have been due to a purple dye
that was extracted from the murex
shellfish found along the shores of the
northern Levantine coast
the Phoenicians though probably thought
of themselves as descendants of the
Canaanite peoples of the Bronze Age
after all they had much in common with
their Canaanite ancestors they more or
less spoke a version of the same
language worshiped many if not all of
the same gods and goddesses and as far
as we know maintained many aspects of
the same culture
[Music]
Phoenicia was not a kingdom per se but
rather a Federation of city-states that
was each ruled by a separate king in
fact it had been this way since the
beginning of the region's recorded
history the most prominent Phoenician
cities were Byblos tyre Sidon Beirut and
Arvada being coastal cities and
lucrative trade hubs Phoenicia attracted
many different peoples from all parts of
the world one such group were the
infamous Sea Peoples who according to
Egyptian hygge Riddick Cypriot and other
textual sources ravaged the area and
brought about what historians today
referred to as the Bronze Age collapse
of 1,200 to 1150 BCE which at least with
regard to the Levant brought about the
end of Egyptian Assyrian and Hittite
domination of the region Egypt lost its
empire in Asia which was mostly in
Canaan and the Assyrians lost their
connection to the Levant lucrative trade
with northern Mesopotamia the Hittites
though suffered the most as their state
was completely wiped off the map gone
finished never to arise again in place
of these great powers new political
entities arose in the Levant including
neo-hittite aramean and other kingdoms
such as Israel Judah Edom Moab and the
Philistine States surprisingly though
the Phoenician city-states were left
relatively unscathed by the Sea Peoples
and several scholars think that this may
have been due to the Phoenicians simply
paying them off what is known is that
after the chaos of the Late Bronze Age
the absence of the once great powers of
the region the Egyptians Hittites and
Assyrians enabled the Phoenician
city-states
to completely dominate the region
economically venetie's most valuable
export was timber but the Phoenicians
also traded in manufactured goods
created from ivory wood stone metal wool
and linen these products were traded at
numerous overseas destinations by
seafaring Phoenicians
who also brought back to their cities
precious stones spices gold silver and
various other commodities that were in
high demand such Goods literally took
them to the ends of the known world
especially towards the West westward
expansion and colonization was really
the Phoenicians only option if they
wanted to grow in wealth and influence
thus trading colonies were set up all
over the Mediterranean in places such as
Sicily Sardinia southern Spain and
probably most famously the coast of
northern Africa many of these were
temporary settlements but others such as
what became Carthage not only became
permanent but great military and
commercial powers of their own most of
our sources on the Phoenicians come from
Egyptian Assyrian Babylonian Hebrew and
Greek texts though there are plenty of
Phoenician inscriptions that have been
uncovered all over the Mediterranean
world few of them actually give an
account of Phoenician history this
doesn't mean that historical texts in
the Phoenician language didn't exist for
we have references and Greek sources to
the works of Phoenician authors but
copies of these referenced primary
documents at least so far have not been
found this could be because many
Phoenician texts were written on papyrus
and thus probably disintegrated or were
burned by fire during the many invasions
of the area
some of the earliest references to the
Phoenicians come from the royal
inscriptions of the Assyrian King
tiglath-pileser the first who ruled
between 1114 to 1076 BCE he claims to
have not only visited the area but also
bring back the region's
prized cedar trees to the Assyrian
capital of Ashur as well as boast about
killing what's been identified by
scholars as a narwhal while on a boating
trip around the city of Arvada one of
his inscriptions reads I marched to
Mount Lebanon I cut down and carried off
cedar beams for the temple of the gods
Anu and a dad the great gods my Lords I
continued to the land of a muru and
conquered the entire land of a marul I
received tribute from the lands of
byblos Sidon and Arvada I wrote in boats
of the people of our vaad and traveled
successfully a distance of three double
hours from the city of Arvada in Island
to the city of Samoa which is in the
land of a muru I killed at sea and the
hero which is called a sea horse
[Music]
[Applause]
Phoenicia cedar trees were quite famous
in the ancient world Egyptian texts as
well as the Bible mentioned them as
objects of great value the ancient
Egyptian tale of when imam mentions
ships from byblos and Sidon filled with
timber on their way to Egypt while the
Bible's books of kings and chronicles
speak of King Hiram of Tyre sending
loads of cedar wood to Jerusalem for
Solomon's great temple the cedar though
came at a price
Solomon had to give up the control of 20
cities as payment in his inscriptions
the Assyrian King Ashin a Sir Paul the
second mentions several military
campaigns in the coastal regions of the
eastern Mediterranean an excerpt from
one of his annals from around the year
870 BCE reads at that time I made my way
to the slopes of Mount Lebanon and went
up to the great sea of the land am uru I
cleanse my weapons in the great sea and
made sacrifices to the gods I received
tribute from the kings of the Seacoast
from the lands of the people of tyre
sidon by blows Mahalo to my zoo Kazu am
uru and the city of Arvada which is on
an island in the sea
silver gold tin bronze a large female
monkey a small female monkey evany
boxwood ivory Abner Heroes which are sea
creatures they submitted to me such
inscriptions may give the impression
that Assyrian incursions into and the
collection of tribute from the coastal
regions of the Levant were easy however
this wasn't the case as the smaller
kingdoms of the Levant realized that the
tide of assyrian expansion had no end
they banded together to form anti
assyrian coalitions of their own one of
these was during the reign of Solomon
nazar the third who ruled between 858 to
824 BCE
in a monument known as the Kirk monolith
psalmanazar the
details one of these encounters that
occurred in 853 BCE near the town of
Carcar among the 11 or 12 rulers that he
faced two of them were the Phoenician
kings of byblos and Arvada though the
Battle of Carcar was a stalemate
within a decade psalmanazar was able to
defeat all of his rivals and demand
tribute from them by the reign of the
Assyrian King Sennacherib in 704 BCE
fear had compelled most of the local
kings along the eastern Mediterranean
coast to submit to a Syrian rule if the
Assyrian King didn't like a local ruler
he could replace him at will as the
following text attributed to Sennacherib
clearly demonstrates luli king of Sidon
whom the terror inspiring glamour of my
lordship had overwhelmed fled far
overseas and perished the awe-inspiring
splendor of the weapon of Ashur my lord
overwhelmed his strong cities such as
great Sidon little Sidon bit City Sarab
to Mohali ba Mushu oxy and Akko all his
fortress cities walled and
well-preserved
with food and water for his Garrison's
and they bowed in submission to my feet
I installed earth wall upon the throne
to be their king and imposed upon him
tribute due to me as his overlord to be
paid annually without interruption as we
can see from this passage it's clearly
the Assyrians who called the shots
this however didn't mean that local
rulers couldn't personally benefit from
a Syrian expansion there's a copy of a
treaty between cynic Arab successor SR
Hadden and a certain ball king of Tyre
yes this is the same name as the popular
Canaanite and finishing god in it the
king ball of tyre is made to be the
servant of SR Hadden with certain
responsibilities and of course
unquestioned loyalty to the assyrian
crown in return though
is given control of several ports such
as byblos and even some such as Akko and
door far to the south with several gods
and goddesses called as witnesses the
treaty states that ball will suffer many
curses should he break his oath it turns
out that ball did break his oath and
joined forces with Egypt and its nubian
Kushite arrow taharka balls betrayal was
noted by SR Hagen in an inscription in
the course of my campaign I said of
fortifications against ball the king of
Tyre who trusted in his friend taharka
the king of cush threw off the yoke of
the god assure my lord
and kept answering me with insolence I
cut off the supply of food and water
that sustained their lives
hasar haedong later states
I conquered tyre which is in the midst
of the sea and took away all of the
cities and possessions of all its king
who had trusted in taharka king of cush
and I conquered Lower Egypt Upper Egypt
and cush struck taharka its King five
times with arrows and ruled his entire
land
I wrote to all of the Kings who are in
the midst of the sea from Cyprus and
Ionia to Tarsus and they bowed down at
my feet I received their heavy tribute I
carried off gold silver goods
possessions people young and old horses
oxen and sheep and goats they're heavy
booty that was beyond counting to
Assyria
I placed Kings governors officials and
harbor masters over their lands these
claims may be a bit exaggerated since
there's no evidence that a Syrian forces
ventured further south than Memphis and
eventually taharka was able to launch a
counter-attack from the Nile Delta
hasar hoddan does claim to have sacked
the Egyptian capital of Memphis and even
taken to heart cos wife and showed
including the Crown Prince Uche Anna who
rule back with him to Assyria which is
actually depicted on a victory stealing
however just a few years later the
region was an open rebellion against
Assyria and he saw hoddan was forced to
make his way back to Phoenicia to put
down the insurgents he never got there
as he died along the way his son
Ashurbanipal succeeded him as king of
Assyria many scholars debate if he
actually went to Egypt himself or rather
dispatched his most trusted men to put
an end to the insurrection regardless in
his royal inscriptions Ashurbanipal
claims that 22 kings from the seashore
the islands and the mainland servants
who belong to me brought heavy gifts to
me and kissed my feet I made these Kings
accompany my army over the land as well
as over the sea route with their armed
forces and their ships
among the 22 kings that Ashurbanipal
names were the Phoenician Kings ball
king of tyre the same one actually as
during SR Holland's reign milky Aqaba
the king of Byblos and I akin Lou the
king of our van since the main part of
tyre was reportedly on an impregnable
island and since Ashurbanipal made no
claims of its capture it's unlikely that
the city was held by a Syrian forces
however Baal must have known that his
city couldn't withstand in a Syrian
blockade forever and so probably thought
it wise to renew the treaty that he'd
made with SR Hadden several years prior
Ashurbanipal more or less seems to
confirm this in his annals from the Year
665 or 664 BCE in my third campaign I
marched against Paul king of Tyre who
lives on an island amidst the sea
because he did not heed my royal order
did not listen to my personal commands I
surrounded him with readouts seized his
communications on land and sea i thus
intercepted and made scarce their food
supply and forced them to submit to my
yoke he brought his own daughter and the
daughters of his brothers before me to
do menial services at the same time he
brought his son yaja milky who had not
yet crossed the sea to greet me as my
slave i had mercy upon him and returned
him the son the offspring of his loins
iock in lieu king of Avadh living also
on an island who had not submitted to
any of the kings of my family did now
submit to my yoke and brought his
daughter with a great dowry to Nineveh
to do menial services and he kissed my
feet
when the Assyrian Empire finally fell
around 610 BCE its former territories in
the Levant were taken over by the
neo-babylonian empire not all of them
though were easy to acquire tyre perhaps
learning from its conflicts with Assyria
was prepared for a protracted siege in
585 BCE the Babylonian king
nebuchadnezzar ii attacked tyre and at
least according to the historian
Josephus held it under siege for at
least 13 years even the Bible's Book of
Ezekiel makes mention of actually makes
fun of the long siege and the aging of
the Babylonian soldiers during the
process Son of Man Nebuchadnezzar king
of Babylon drove his army in a hard
campaign against tyre every head was
rubbed bare and every shoulder made raw
yet he and his army got no reward from
the campaign he led against tyre in the
end it seems that both sides came to
some sort of agreement since a prolonged
Babylonian blockade would have continued
to have hurt tyre in the long run and
Nebuchadnezzar probably grew tired no
pun intended of devoting so many
resources to simply subdue a city in the
middle of the sea the final result was
that tyre was allowed to be ruled by its
local kings in return for vassalage and
use of its large fleet of ships which
essentially gave the Babylonians a
powerful Navy around 540 BCE the
Persians conquered the area under Cyrus
the Great the period of rule under the
Persian Achaemenid dynasty from about
540 to 332 BCE was overall a bit more
peaceful and for the most part as long
as they paid their taxes the Phoenicians
were allowed to do as the
like the Babylonians the Persians also
inherited the Phoenician Navy which they
used on several occasions an exception
to this though came during the reign of
Cyrus his son come by --ss according to
Herodotus combined Swan to launch a
campaign against the Carthaginians but
the Phoenicians especially ships and
crews that were based in Tyre refused
there was a good reason for this you see
Carthage was a Phoenician colony that
had been initially founded by citizens
from Tyre according to Herodotus the
Phoenicians were bound by a strict
treaty and could not righteously attack
their own sons and the Phoenicians being
unwilling the rest were of no account as
fighters
thus the Carthaginians escaped being
enslaved by the Persians for come by
SACEUR swith the Phoenicians seeing that
they had willingly surrendered to the
Persians and the whole fleet drew its
strength from them
the Finnish and Navy though was
instrumental in the Persian invasion of
Greece in 480 BCE which ultimately ended
in disaster in 343 BCE there was a
revolt in Phoenicia during the reign of
the Persian king artaxerxes the third
were according to the ancient historian
diodorus siculus in anti persian
alliance was concocted between the
Phoenicians and the Cypriots with some
help from the Egyptians though tyre and
Arvada were also involved
it was Sidon that initially took the
lead while its King tennies with the
help of some 4000 Greek mercenaries
initially had some success he was
alarmed when he heard that a large
Persian force perhaps over 300 thousand
men with 300 ships was gathering nearby
and so he wrote to artaxerxes the third
informing him that he would secretly
surrender Sidon to the Persians if he
and his City would be spared keep in
mind though that these numbers are
believed by nearly all scholars to have
been greatly exaggerated
anyway artaxerxes agreed to the proposal
though Tenney's delivered as promised
artaxerxes had him killed
along with several hundred Sidonians the
ultimate fate of the survivors was a
rather tragic one the odorous states
when they saw the city and the walls
captured and swarming with the many
myriads of soldiers they shut themselves
their children and their women in their
houses and consumed them all in flames
they say that those who were then
destroyed in the fire
including the domestics amounted to more
than 40,000 after hearing what happened
inside on the other cities of Tyre and
Arvada surrendered without a fight and
resubmitted to Persian rule under which
they remained until 332 BCE when
Alexander of Macedon also known as
Alexander the Great came to Phoenicia
the historian Aryan writes Alexander
marched from Marathas and received the
surrender of byblos Sidon also invited
by the sidonians themselves who loathed
Persia and arias thence he proceeded
towards Tyre and on the way Tyrion
envoy's met him sent by the community to
say that tyre had decided to accept
Alexander's orders however when
Alexander wished to offer a sacrifice to
Hercules in tires Great Temple the
Tyrians refused outraged Alexander
decided to punish tyre and its residents
after a long blockade and siege in which
he had to build a causeway to the main
part of the city which was on an island
he finally entered Tyre and killed many
of its inhabitants
in addition thirty thousand of the
surviving Tyrians and some Carthaginians
were sold into slavery after which
Alexander is said to have finally made a
sacrifice to Hercules and held a
procession in his honor as the region
became more Hellenized references to the
Phoenicians in historical texts become
fewer until by the mid to late Roman
period they pretty much cease altogether
however the Phoenicians is impact on
Western culture is quite extensive we'll
discuss some of their inventions and
innovations such as the alphabet in
another program
as always thanks so much for stopping by
I really appreciate it if you learn
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