Introduction to Pathology - Cell Injury - A New Pathology Series
Summary
TLDRThis video from Medicosis Perfectionalis delves into pathology, the study of diseases, and their causes. The host explains key concepts like cell injury and cell death, highlighting the reversible nature of cell injury and the irreversible nature of cell death. They discuss various causes of cell injury, including hypoxia, chemical agents, and genetic conditions, and elaborate on conditions like myocardial infarction, COPD, and heavy metal poisoning. The video also touches on treatments and how medicine 'makes sense' when thoroughly understood. It's an engaging, detailed breakdown of disease processes with practical applications.
Takeaways
- 🦠 Pathology studies diseases, their nature, causes, and risk factors, with biopsy as the gold standard for diagnosis.
- 🔬 Gross examination refers to inspecting organs with the naked eye, while microscopic examination involves using a microscope.
- 💀 Cell injury is reversible, but cell death is irreversible, with apoptosis and necrosis being types of cell death.
- 😷 Causes of cell injury include hypoxia (lack of oxygen), chemical agents (e.g., alcohol, acetaminophen), physical agents, free radicals, and inflammatory or immunological conditions.
- 🫁 Organs like the lungs and heart are key to preventing hypoxia. Lung disease or heart disease can lead to oxygen deprivation and cell injury.
- 💊 Acetaminophen overdose is dangerous, leading to liver damage through the depletion of glutathione, which normally neutralizes free radicals.
- 🧬 Genetic conditions (e.g., phenylketonuria) and metabolic disorders (e.g., diabetes) can cause cell injury by disrupting normal metabolic pathways.
- 🍽️ Nutritional deficiencies, such as in protein energy malnutrition (e.g., kwashiorkor or marasmus), can cause cell injury, leading to conditions like edema due to low oncotic pressure.
- 🦠 Bacterial, viral, fungal, and parasitic infections can cause cell injury, with treatments including antibiotics, antivirals, and antifungals.
- 💡 The Fenton reaction describes how free iron or copper generates harmful hydroxyl radicals, leading to further cellular damage.
Q & A
What is the gold standard for diagnosing diseases according to the video?
-The gold standard for diagnosing diseases is biopsy, which involves examining the organ through gross (naked eye) and microscopic examination.
What is the difference between cell injury and cell death?
-Cell injury is a reversible process, meaning the cell can recover, while cell death is irreversible, and the cell cannot be restored.
What are some of the causes of hypoxia or anoxia mentioned in the video?
-The causes of hypoxia or anoxia include lung disease (such as COPD), heart disease (such as myocardial infarction), and chemical factors like cigarette smoking and alcohol.
What are the main categories of agents that can cause cell injury?
-The main categories of agents that cause cell injury include hypoxia, chemical agents, physical agents, free radicals, inflammatory conditions, immunological conditions, microbiological causes, genetic or metabolic factors, nutritional deficiencies, and aging.
How does acetaminophen cause cell injury, and how can it be treated?
-Acetaminophen is metabolized into a toxic compound called NAPQI, which depletes glutathione, leading to cell damage. It can be treated by replenishing glutathione using N-acetylcysteine.
What is the Fenton reaction, and why is it harmful?
-The Fenton reaction occurs when free iron or copper generates hydroxyl free radicals, which cause oxidative damage to cells. This is why iron is normally bound to transferrin in the blood and ferritin in tissues.
What is the difference between gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria?
-Gram-positive bacteria have a thick peptidoglycan cell wall and stain purple, while gram-negative bacteria have a thinner cell wall and stain pink in a Gram stain.
What is phenylketonuria (PKU), and how can it be treated?
-Phenylketonuria (PKU) is a genetic condition caused by a deficiency in the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase, which prevents the conversion of phenylalanine into tyrosine. It can be treated with a special diet rich in tyrosine and low in phenylalanine.
What are the signs of protein-energy malnutrition, and how do they affect the body?
-Protein-energy malnutrition, such as kwashiorkor, leads to low protein levels in the blood, causing edema due to low oncotic pressure. Signs include pitting edema and poor wound healing.
How does cyanosis in a newborn indicate the difference between lung and heart disease?
-If oxygen administration improves cyanosis, it indicates a lung problem, but if it does not, it suggests a heart condition, such as congenital heart disease.
Outlines
📚 Introduction to Pathology and Cell Injury
The speaker introduces the study of pathology, which covers diseases, their causes, and the processes behind them. A brief explanation of how biopsies and tissue examination are key to understanding diseases is provided, alongside a comparison of gross and microscopic examinations. The video will focus on cell injury, its causes, and how it differs from cell death. Key causes of cell injury are introduced, including hypoxia, chemical agents, free radicals, and immunological causes, highlighting that some injuries are reversible, but others, like cell death, are irreversible.
🫁 Hypoxia and Anoxia in Cell Injury
The paragraph focuses on hypoxia (reduced oxygen) and anoxia (lack of oxygen) as major causes of cell injury. It explains how lung and heart diseases can lead to hypoxia and uses the example of cyanotic heart diseases in newborns. The distinction between lung and heart-related hypoxia is made by observing whether oxygen therapy improves the condition. Other causes of cell injury are discussed, such as alcohol and acetaminophen toxicity, heavy metals, and free radicals.
🦠 Microbial, Genetic, and Nutritional Causes of Cell Injury
This paragraph delves into the microbial, genetic, and nutritional causes of cell injury. It highlights bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites as sources of infection that can damage cells, leading to diseases. The paragraph also touches on genetic conditions like phenylketonuria (PKU) and metabolic issues like diabetes mellitus. Nutritional deficiencies, especially those involving proteins, can also harm cells, with examples like Kwashiorkor (protein malnutrition) and marasmus (severe malnutrition). It briefly mentions intracellular accumulations, such as lead from external sources or triglycerides from within the body.
🧬 Aging, Oxidative Stress, and Heavy Metal Toxicity
Aging is introduced as a factor that affects cell injury by slowing down cell replication, making it harder for the body to recover from damage. The text discusses oxidative stress from free radicals and the toxicity of heavy metals like iron and copper, which produce harmful hydroxyl radicals through the Fenton reaction. It also references medications like statins, radiocontrast agents, and antibiotics as potential sources of kidney damage.
Mindmap
Keywords
💡Cell Injury
💡Cell Death
💡Hypoxia
💡Apoptosis vs Necrosis
💡Biopsy
💡Free Radicals
💡Autoimmune Diseases
💡Inflammation
💡Phenylketonuria (PKU)
💡Kwashiorkor
Highlights
Introduction to the new pathology playlist, focusing on the study of diseases, their nature, causes, risk factors, and precipitating factors.
Biopsy is the gold standard in diagnosing diseases by examining organs at both gross and microscopic levels.
Explanation of reversible cell injury versus irreversible cell death, with causes such as hypoxia, chemical agents, and physical agents.
Free radicals, such as reactive oxygen species, and their role in cell injury and disease processes.
Hypoxia and anoxia as major causes of cell injury, with conditions like myocardial infarction and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) leading to oxygen deprivation.
Discussion of chemical factors like polycyclic hydrocarbons from cigarette smoke, alcohol, and heavy metals that cause cell injury.
Acetaminophen (Tylenol) toxicity and its effects on the liver, leading to depletion of glutathione and free radical damage.
Iron overload (hemochromatosis) and copper toxicity, resulting in harmful free radicals through the Fenton reaction.
The role of inflammation, autoimmune diseases (like lupus and rheumatoid arthritis), and infections in causing cell injury.
Nutritional deficiencies, including protein-energy malnutrition (kwashiorkor) and total energy malnutrition (marasmus), leading to cell injury.
The importance of intracellular accumulation, like triglycerides and bilirubin, in contributing to disease.
Explanation of cyanosis and how it helps differentiate between lung and heart diseases in newborns with oxygen deprivation.
Heavy metals such as mercury, lead, and arsenic, along with their toxic effects on kidneys and overall cell injury.
Staphylococcus versus Streptococcus infections, their cellular effects, and how coagulase enzymes influence the spread of infection.
Phenylketonuria (PKU), its genetic basis, and dietary treatments that reverse cell injury.
Protein malnutrition leading to pitting edema due to low oncotic pressure from reduced plasma proteins like albumin.
Transcripts
hey guys it's medicosa's perfect net is
where medicine makes perfect sense
welcome to a brand new playlist
pathology baby the study of diseases and
their nature and their causes or risk
factors and precipitating factors biopsy
is the gold standard look at the organ
look at it and then respect it how the
organ looks to the naked eye is called
gross examination grows here means big
not disgusting and then you put the
tissue under the microscope and that's
called microscopic examination in this
series you will learn about the
different types of stains different
techniques to prepare the tissue and
resilient diseases did you know that
medicine has more than 10 000 conditions
to study and learn and devour let's
start at the beginning cell injury first
you gotta understand the difference
between cell injury and cell death cell
injury is reversible but cell death it's
over there is no going back irreversible
here your cell is just hurt but here
your cell is gone she gone man she gone
and if you are familiar with this
pathology playlist you know that we
talked about cell death before apoptosis
versus necrosis what can cause cell
injury which is irreversible condition
it could be hypoxia less oxygen or
anoxia no oxygen chemical agents
physical agents free radicals like the
reactive oxygen species inflammatory
causes immunological causes
microbiological causes genetic or
metabolic causes nutritional
deficiencies intracellular accumulation
of some Gunk sometimes the gunk is
coming from outside and sometimes it's
coming from your body from the inside
and then aging or senescence where
everything in your body literally
becomes like a country song what are the
most famous causes of hypoxia or anox
see it let's think about that what are
the organs that are responsible for
supplying your body with oxygen lungs of
course so lung disease can lead to this
and who should Supply that oxygen to all
tissues of your body the hot so heart
disease can also lead to hypoxia or
anoxia so causes of cell injury can
include myocardial infarction and
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
how about chemical factors we have the
polycyclic hydrocarbons such as
cigarette smoking do not just say
hydrocarbons because literally you are
made of hydrocarbons we say polycyclic
hydrocarb next was that oh that's the
alcohol group yep alcohols can lead to
cell injury medications especially
acetaminophen or paracetamol Tylenol
heavy metals such as mercury poisoning
lead poisoning arsenic toxicity Etc
physical agents such as radiation or
frostbite or Burns or more skin wounds
then free radicals also acetaminophen so
you can imagine that acetaminophen is
dangerous especially if you overdose and
iron overload state known as
hemochromatosis what does osis mean
condition what does chroma mean color
because if I have hemochromatosis my
skin will acquire a bronze color Chromo
color and hemo because iron is in the
heme which is part of your hemoglobin of
the blood inflammatory conditions can
injure my cells such as abscess fironco
carbuncle cellulitis folliculitis sepsis
Etc immunological conditions like the
famous autoimmune diseases lupus
rheumatoid arthritis Scleroderma AKA
systemic sclerosis sjogren syndrome and
much more microbiological which include
bacteria viruses fungi and parasites
they can lead to cell injury of course
genetic or metal all the conditions like
phenylketin urea and diabetes mellitus
nutritional deficiencies can injure my
cell such as if I am deficient just in
proteins this is called protein energy
malnutrition a famous example is quite
sure core disease but if I live in the
desert and I'm not eating or if I live
in abject poverty I am deficient in all
three what do you call that total energy
malnutrition such as a disease known as
merasmus and the patient will have
cachexia which we talked about before in
this pathology playlist intracellular
accumulation of stuff coming from the
outside lead or anthracotic pigment
remember my video on Anthrax I've told
you Anthrax is not the same as anthracos
anthracosis is a pigment no big deal but
Anthrax oh it can kill you next we have
endogenous intracellular accumulation
coming from within you so as
triglycerides or bilirubin The Starry
heavens above me and the moral law
within me who said that let me know the
answer in the comment section and then
aging because if I age as I age the cell
replication decreases which means when
the cell gets injured it's not repairing
itself as it used to now let's have some
of these as examples and elaborate
starting with hypoxia this is cyanosis a
blue baby a blue baby is born what do
you think is going on well it's either a
lung disease or a heart disease of
course how can you tell the difference
easy give oxygen if oxygen treated the
problem then it was a lung issue because
when I give oxygen I am replacing the
lungs function if it corrects then it
was a lung disease but if it does not
correct no significant Improvement then
it's a heart issue even if you give
oxygen to the body the heart still has
to pump it to all the tissues when the
heart cannot do it this is the heart
condition such as the famous cyanotic
congenital heart diseases all of them
start with a t trachos paid atresia
tetralogy of follow tea a PVR
transposition and truncus don't you know
next let's talk about alcohol methanol
can lead to formic acid toxic to your
eye ethanol metabolize into acetic acid
normal doses usually not toxic high
doses it can lead to toxicity especially
because of the elevated nadh level which
will trigger many enzymatic reactions in
your body and you will end up with
outcomes that you do not like example
lactic acidosis to name just one how
about ethylene glycol it can be
metabolized into glycolic acid not good
for your kidney it causes kidney stones
next let's talk about acetaminophen
acetaminophen or paracetamol will be
metabolized in your liver over by the
liver p450 enzyme system cytochrome into
something called napkey what does napkey
mean it's an acronym it stands for an
acetyl P benzoquinone amine in case
you're wondering this snapkey is evil
it's gonna deplete the glutathione
glutathione was the good guy glutathione
is a free radical scavenger gluthion is
the good guy it gets rid of the bad guys
the free radicals how do you think we
should treat acetaminophen well try to
replenish the good guy how do I
replenish glutathione by an
acetylcysteine we were just scratching
the surface on acetaminophen if you want
to learn more about acetaminophen and
the other non-steroidals like aspirin
ibuprofen ketoprofen oxyprosyn if you
want to learn about serotonin
pharmacology the antihistamines and the
H2 blockers the medications that we use
for peptic ulcer disease and for
migraine download my utakoids
pharmacology course at
medicosisperfectsnellis.com next let's
talk about heavy metals if you have
watched my kidney failure videos
especially my video on acute kidney
failure I've told you that acute renal
asotemia has three types pre-renal intra
renal and post renal pre-renal the
problem is here in the blood that's
reaching the kidney renal the problem
starts inside the kidney post reading of
the problems in the outflow from the
kidney two from inside what are the
things that can damage the kidney itself
I.E intraenal exotemia hypoxic and toxic
hypoxic ischemia oh like anoxia hypoxia
exactly and toxic what are these could
be medications or could be heavy metals
look at this all of these agents can
injure your kidney these include a radio
contrast agents like iodine that we use
in contrast city scan heavy metal
poisoning many antibiotics Platinum is
chemotherapy immunosuppressive
medications like cyclospore and
tachrolymers Methotrexate but not
serolimus because usually seralimus is
good for the kidney seralimus spares the
kidney lipid lowering agents like
statins cocaine ethylene glycol and
tolene next let's talk about iron and
copper why are they toxic because of
something called the fentan reaction if
iron is left free if copper is left free
they will give me hydroxyl free radicals
so here's how I remember the Phantom
reaction it's the F me mnemonic if Fe is
left free by the Fenton reaction it will
give me hydroxyl free radicals freaking
bad and that's why if you remember your
physiology someone has to be carrying
that iron all the time we do not leave
that iron to be free because if it
becomes free it causes disasters who's
gonna bind the iron in your blood it's
bound to transferrin in in your tissue
it's bound in the form of ferritin see
medicine makes so much sense once you
understand what the flip you're talking
about next let's talk about some
cellulitis and some abscess action
remember that microbes are bacteria
fungi viruses or parasites that's why
the field of microbiology studies
bacteriology fungality or mycology
virology and parasitology we use the
Gram stain to differentiate between many
types of bacteria if they stain purple
we call them gram-positive because they
have a thick peptidoglycan cell wall but
if they stay in pink because they do not
have a thick peptidoglycan cell wall
they are called gram negatives gram
positives could look like this spherical
we call them cocci or like this bacilli
we call them rods and then if you are a
gram-positive caucus the next question
is do you have catalase enzyme or do you
not have catalase enzyme if you do you
are staphylococcus and then do you have
coagulase if yes it's a a staff Aureus
this Steph lukakis Aureus as we have
discussed in my microbiology and
infectious diseases playlist is
coagulate is positive why is that
important coagulase is an enzyme that
coagulates by making fibrant fibers you
coagulate the infection will be
localized in a small area relatively
speaking so you get a tiny folliculitis
or can get bigger furunco or even bigger
carbuncle but we're still limited to a
certain Locale in your body conversely
if you're talking about streptococcus
pyogenes which is coagulase negative
there is nothing to clot it and keep it
in one place that's why streptococcus
pergines will spread all over the area
giving you
cellulitis sepsis necrotizing fasciitis
all of these are widespread areas of
infection medicine makes so much sense
if you understand standard next let's
talk about phenylketon urea if you have
watched my video on it look at this
doctor my child is acting strangely not
learning smells forgive me like a rat
low birth weight low head circumference
and a lighter skin tone Oh by the way I
married my cousin this is fennel
kittenuria a deficiency in an enzyme
known as phenylalanine hydroxylase
normally this enzyme should convert
phenylalanine into tyrosine but in cases
of phenylketonuria phenylaline
hydroxylase stose which means
phenylalanine cannot become tyrosine
who's gonna pile up everything that is
before the enzyme so phenylalanine will
accumulate and who will decrease in my
blood tyrosine will be very low
therefore how can I treat this patient a
special diet rich in tyrosine and poor
in phenylalanine I.E try to reverse the
symptoms and when the doctor did just
that look what happened hey doctor do
you remember me I am the mother of the
PKU child this is a True Story by the
way he has caught up with other kids
he's leading a normal life now thank you
you changed our lives see what a good
doctor can do not the doofuses with the
stethoscope that we have today running
around the hospital and this proves to
you that PKU is a cell injury because it
was reversible not a cell death if your
wonderful Professor explains like this I
will retire from YouTube and work for a
garbage company NeXT let's talk about
kwashir core which is protein energy
malnutrition look what are the causes of
low protein in my blood maybe I'm not
eating it and this is called kwasher
core syndrome due to malnutrition of
proteins or maybe because my liver is
not making it we see this in chronic
liver disease like cirrhosis or maybe
because I am eating it I am making it
it's just I am losing it I'm wasting too
much protein I could be wasting their
protein through skin in third degree
burns or through the gut maybe I should
blame my stomach Miniatures disease or
blame my intestines male absorption
syndrome such as celiac disease or
should I blame the kidneys this is
nephrotic syndrome whatever the case
might be all of these patients with low
protein and Darren will have low oncotic
pressure because remember that's in the
vessel what's the name of the pressure
that pushes hydrostatic pressure which
depends on the volume of the blood and
what's the name of the pressure that
pulls fluid to the inside of the vessel
it's called oncotic pressure who's
responsible for the oncotic pressure
plasma proteins namely albumin if I am
not eating enough protein I will have
less albumin and I will be unable to
pull fluid to the vessel in instead the
fluid will escape and go to the outside
accumulation of fluid in the
interstitial space is the definition of
Edema this edema is pitting when you
touch it when you push your finger in
and then pull your finger for the next
few seconds you will still see the
indentation this is called pitting it is
dependent which means gravity will pull
it down that's why we speak of ankle
edema next this edema is made of clear
fluid known as a Transit versus the
edema of infection and inflammation
which is known as an exudator you see
this in cases of abscesses pus formation
this edema is not caused by the high
hydrostatic pressure instead it's caused
by the low on cardiac pressure whether
it's due to quasher core or cirrhosis or
burn or celiac disease or minutes
disease or nephrotic Center drone this
is medicine as it should be not the
trash that you're taught in school well
I saw the kind of ish read my
professor's PowerPoint and I got all of
this medicine thing figured out kiss my
calcaneus so today you learn about a
variety of causes of cell injury which
is a reversible process if this video
gets 3 000 likes I will make a special
video on hypoxia and the different
causes of hypoxia and the difference
between hypoxia and hypoxemia and what
the flip is hypoxic hypoxia and much
more so please subscribe hit the like
button and share my videos with others
today we talked about abscesses
cellulitis for your uncle carbuncle all
kinds of infection how do we treat
bacterial infections antibiotics if you
download my entire parents course it
will teach you not only of
antibacterials but also
anti-virals anti-fungals and
anti-parasitic medications downloaded
today at medicosisperfect snails.com
myocardial infarction can lead to
hypoxia in the body and this can lead to
cell injury of course you can learn
about angina and myocardial infarction
many cardiac arrhythmias ischemic
Strokes hemorrhagic strokes and much
more if you download my emergency
medicine high yields course at
medicosisperfectsnetis.com if you do not
want to download my premium courses but
would rather watch them right here on
YouTube click the join button and choose
the highest tier thank you for watching
please subscribe hit the Bell hit like
support my channel here or here go to my
website to download my courses notes and
cases be safe stay happy study hard this
is medicosa's Perfect Nails where
medicine makes perfect sense
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